97. If, as an advantage, in humans such manifestations of dreams can be related to their reported content, in non-human animals it is possible to record with a high degree of accuracy not only the motor and the vegetative manifestations of dremaing but the electro-oscillograms of many central structures as well. government site. The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. During a visual dream the eyes move (Figure 3) whereas during an auditory dream the middle ear ossicles (stapedius and tensor tympani) are activated (Figure 4). Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1987;66:383-90. De Sanctis S. I Sogni e il Sonno. In fact, it does frequently occur when movements are expressed as high frequency potentials. Arch Ital Biol 1969;107:175-216. Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. De Sanctis, in 1899, in his book I Sogni, Studi Clinici ed Psicologici di un Alienista (Dreams, Clinical and Psychological Studies of a Psychiatrist), cites no less than 323 articles and books dealing with dreams, which proves that the objective study of dreams did not start during the middle of the 20th century, as is usually taken for granted (4). Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. Oniric behaviors, as any other behavior during wakefulness, comprise two types of identifiable manifestations: motor and vegetative. Sleep 1982;5:169-87. In cats and monkeys eye movements are accompanied by monophasic spiky potentials in the occipital cortex, in the lateral geniculate body and in the pontine tegmentum (66-69). Kohyama J, Shimomira M, Iwakawa y. Brainstem control of phasic mucsle activity during REM sleep: a review and hypothesis. Shiromani PJ, Lai yy, Siegel JM. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. 62. This statement is incorrect, inasmuch as electro-oscillograms during both states in humans are not so similar as to confound an observer and in rats we have found that theta waves that occur in both attentive wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep are largely different. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Gadea-Ciria M. Plasticity of ponto-geniculo-occipital waves during paradoxical sleep after frontal lobe lesions in the cat. 48. Nature, 2002, submitted. On the functional role of consciousness. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. The first oscillation lasts around two hours, when sleep attains its deepest level; the ensuing cycles last less and their depth tends to decrease until arousal finally occurs, a sequence that recent research has fully confirmed. Oka T, Iwakiri H, Mori S. Pontine-induced generalized suppression of postural muscle tone in a reflexively standing acute decerebrate cat. When a dream is a nightmare, both motor and vegetative events may be very intense. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. 63. In 1944 Obhlmeyer, Brilmayer & Uhlstrung (10) observed that in humans penile erection occurs during sleep at intervals of 85 minutes, which is the average duration of a sleep cycle. Hippocrates and Alkmaeon, who discovered that the mind is in the brain, not in the heart, knew that dreams were originated in the brain. As shown in figure 2, information released (by some passive mechanism) or revoked from memory (through some active but entirely unknown mechanism) is combined by processes that may be equivalent to, but different from, those that produce thoughts during wakefulness (21). 3. The atonia of myoclonia of active (REM) sleep. Sleep and dreaming: induction and mediation of REM sleep by cholinergic mechanisms. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). Reticulospinal and reticulobulbar tracts are involved in conveying to the motoneurons the impulses that cause oniric movements. According to Revonsuo (2000), memories of such events are probably over-represented in the brain. The meaning of dreams is therefore still an unsolved problem. This seems to be a highly improbably conception, among other reasons because, as dreaming is concerned, threatening events are as dangerous to the organism as bad news we hear and as crossing a street or watching a movie-film full of violence are as well. 89. In decerebrate cats eye movements do occur and are integrated below the midbrain (67,95). Noda H, Adey WR. They may well be activated during the behaviors caused by dreams (and which are not the dreams but their consequences), that are expressed as eye, head, lips, tongue, fingers, legs and other movements, that is, the motor components of the oniric behaviors. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. 4 According to Freud, As will be shown below, in rats, that are macrosmatic animals, rostrum (snout) movements predominate during desynchronized sleep over eye movements (31,32). Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). 61. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. 1. Physiol., Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New york 1972:1-165. A regular oscillation modulates the amplitude of the potentials. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. Control of ventilation during sleep. Decety J, Jeannerod M, Durozard DR, Baveal J. As any information consciously identified, a dream triggers a specific behavior, that we call an oniric behavior. News Physiol Sci 1998;13:91-7. Lucrce. When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. The subjects of dreams are broad-ranging and complex, incorporating self-image, fears, insecurities, strengths, grandiose ideas, sexual orientation, desire, jealousy and love". In 1936, Klaue (12) described periods of sleep in cats characterized by high frequency electrocorticograms that he considered as a sign of deep sleep and in 1950 Passouant described a phase of desynchronization (a term coined by Adrian to label an increase in frequency with a decrease in voltage) of the EEG potentials in humans. Grimm R, Tischmeyer W. Complex patterns of immediate gene induction in rat brain following brightness discrimination training and pseudotraining. A theory that has many followers is the one that connects dreams, in particular, desynchronized sleep in general, with memory consolidation. The lag between tachycardia and eye movements may be related to all the neural processes that are involved in the phases preceding adn succeeding the oniric behavior, including the very identification of the dream content. Such hypothesis is grounded on the following steps. According to Mancia (1995), the brain "produces dreams" as "a symbolic process of elaborating, interpreting and reorganizing in narrative sequences all the material accumulated in the memory during waking hours". Brain Res 1970;19:263-75. 72. 53. J Neurophysiol 1977;40:284-95. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). In fact, when the voltage of each theta wave in one site is compared with the voltage in another site it is possible to assess the degree of coincidence or phase shift between the two sites. We spend a lot of time sleeping. Therefore, desynchronized sleep should be ascribed a homeothermic function (116). It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. Often eye movements are preceded in the electroencephalogram by small sawthoot-waves that superimpose on desynchronized potentials (figure 3). 2011 Dec;20(4):998-1008. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.005. physiological function. Moruzzi G. Sleep and instinctive behavior. During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. Neurology 1999;53:2193-5. Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. Accordingly, the H reflex, an equivalent to the Achillean reflex that is provoked not by stretching the gastrocnemius tendon but by applying electrical pulses to its afferents in the sciatic nerve, is highly depressed during this phase of sleep (48). Does early night REM dream content reliably reflect presleep state of mind? Visual dreams provoke eye movements. In 1999, Ribeiro et al., assaying zif-268 expression in control rats and in rats subjected to a rich environment training, found that in control animals this gene protein generally decreased, mainly in the cerebral cortex, from wakefulness to synchronized sleep and from synchronized to desynchronized sleep (109). Schmidek WR, Hoshino K, Schmidek M, Timo-Iaria C. Influence of environmental temperature on the sleep-wakefulness cycle in the rat. Foulkes (1982) considered that dreams are so easily forgotten because the brain in desynchronized sleep is in a "reflective state". Brainstem control of the events of REM sleep. Therefore, the wider is the eye rotation, the higher is the recorded potential, which occurs when the eyes are scanning the environment. 51. By recording potentials from large ensembles of rat hippocampal neurons related to the body position in space (place cells) during behavioral tasks, Wilson & McNaughton (87) found that neurons that fired together when the animals occupied particular locations in the environment (hence the name place cells) also exhibited an increased tendency to fire together during subsequent sleep, in comparison to sleep episodes preceding the behavioral tasks. The reinterpretation of dreams: an evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. During dreaming, however, it is well known that both heart rate and blood pressure undergo short duration increases (as related to the decreased values), which are most likely linked to the oniric behavior. Roffwarg HP, Adrien J, Herman J, Pessah M, Spiro R, Bowe-Anders C. The middle ear muscle activity in the neurophysiology and psychophysiology of the REM state. Experimental study. Science 1978;201:269-72. 116. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. 86. When any part of the brain programs a behavior it sends the program to the cerebellum. ), Ermdung, Schlaf und Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:173-242. Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. 15. However, in the animals subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly from synchronized to desynchronized sleep but decreased from wakefulness to synchronized sleep. The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. 129. To discuss this issue we will concentrate only on a few hypotheses. It is interesting that the representation of animals in dreams of infants is quite conspicuous. Timo-Iaria C, Negro N, Schmidek WR, Rocha TL, Hoshino K. Phases and states of sleep in the rat. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1959;153:1024-8. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:203-6. Consequently, Foulkes concludes that they do not dream but this conclusion is probably incorrect, inasmuch as at this age children have a highly limited narrating capacity and their poor reports about dreams are certainly linked to such a limitation, not their absence. 113. The result of such conscious identification is a dream. (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). (1996) and Braun et al. It is well known that during desynchronized sleep the pupil undergoes an increase in diameter (midriasis), which is not produced by direct sympathetic activation but rather to parasympathetic inactivation, that overcomes the tonic pupillary constrictor activity of the parasympathetic system during synchronized sleep. If the animal is kept alive by forced feeding and is kept warm, in six days frontal desynchronization and theta waves in the other cortical areas reappear and then not only wakefulness is fully recovered but also desynchronized sleep, including oniric activity. Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. The other is that dreams are caused sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal 95. An analysis of the supraspinal influences acting on motoneurons during sleep in the unrestrained cat. University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. Peyrethon J, Dusan-Peyrethon D. tude polygraphique du cycle veille-sommeil chez trois genres de rptiles. 59. Thermoregulation is impaired in desynchronized sleep (64) but it is unlikely that body temperature changes due to dreaming activity, inasmuch as variations of temperature are slow while dreaming is a fast pace phenomenon. Roberts LA, Higgins MJ, O'Shaughnessy CT, Stone TW, Morris BJ. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1969;163:181-6. During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. 80. 2. 132. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1990;76:388-99. Essential manifestations of dreaming are the conscious experience, the electrophysiological, the motor and the vegetative expression of oniric behaviors in humans as well as in other animals. Roffwarg HP, Herman J, Lamstein S. The middle ear muscles: predictability of their phasic action in REM sleep from dream recall. 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